C180 Introduction to Psychology - Set 1 - Part 2

Correct Answer: Sampling bias

Sampling bias occurs when participants aren't randomly chosen, causing certain attributes to be over or underrepresented in studies.
Option a is incorrect because selection error is a general term rather than the specific bias from non-random participant selection methods.
Option c is incorrect because population skew refers to characteristics of entire populations rather than biased selection from those populations.
Option d is incorrect because research bias is too broad, encompassing many bias types beyond just participant selection issues specifically.

Correct Answer: Medulla

The medulla is the lowest brainstem part controlling automatic vital functions including breathing, swallowing, and blood circulation processes.
Option a is incorrect because the cerebellum controls coordination and balance rather than automatic vital functions like breathing and circulation.
Option c is incorrect because the hypothalamus regulates hormones and drives rather than directly controlling breathing and swallowing reflexes automatically.
Option d is incorrect because the pons bridges brain structures rather than directly controlling the automatic vital functions described here.

Correct Answer: Proactive interference

Proactive interference occurs when old memories interfere with forming new ones, like previous names disrupting current name learning.
Option a is incorrect because retroactive interference involves new information interfering with recall of old information, the opposite direction described.
Option c is incorrect because encoding failure prevents initial memory formation rather than old memories actively interfering with new learning.
Option d is incorrect because retrieval blocks are temporary inability to access memories rather than systematic interference from previous learning.

Correct Answer: Equity theory

Equity theory explains how receiving disproportionate benefits creates discomfort, motivating people to restore balance in social exchanges.
Option a is incorrect because reciprocity norm involves returning favors rather than the discomfort from unequal benefit distribution in relationships.
Option c is incorrect because social exchange focuses on cost-benefit analysis rather than the specific discomfort from inequitable benefit distribution.
Option d is incorrect because fairness bias isn't a recognized principle; the discomfort from inequity is explained by equity theory.

Correct Answer: Review board

Institutional review boards evaluate research risks and benefits to determine if studies can be conducted ethically with participants.
Option a is incorrect because ethics committee is informal terminology rather than the formal name for institutional bodies reviewing research proposals.
Option c is incorrect because research panel is too general and doesn't specify the ethical review function these boards serve institutionally.
Option d is incorrect because safety committee suggests physical safety focus rather than comprehensive ethical review including risks and benefits.

Correct Answer: Ovaries specifically

Ovaries are the specific female gonads that secrete estrogen and progesterone hormones within the endocrine system for reproduction.
Option a is incorrect because gonads include both male and female reproductive glands rather than specifically identifying the female organs.
Option c is incorrect because endocrine glands include many organs beyond just female reproductive glands that secrete various hormones systemically.
Option d is incorrect because reproductive organs is too broad, including structures beyond the hormone-secreting glands being asked about specifically.

Correct Answer: Reticular formation

The reticular activating system is part of the reticular formation, maintaining alertness through hypothalamic input and sensory processing.
Option a is incorrect because the limbic system processes emotions and memory rather than containing the alertness and arousal systems described.
Option c is incorrect because thalamic network isn't a recognized structure; the thalamus relays sensory information rather than maintaining alertness.
Option d is incorrect because arousal center is descriptive rather than the anatomical name for the reticular formation containing this system.

Correct Answer: Reliable invalidity

A method can be reliable by giving consistent results while being invalid by not measuring what it's supposed to measure.
Option a is incorrect because valid unreliability is contradictory; validity requires the method to measure correctly, which unreliable methods cannot do.
Option c is incorrect because measurement error refers to random variations rather than systematic problems with what's being measured versus claimed.
Option d is incorrect because systematic bias affects results in one direction rather than the specific issue of measuring wrong constructs consistently.

Correct Answer: Spinal cord

The spinal cord is the flexible rope of neurons within the spinal column connecting brain and peripheral nervous system.
Option a is incorrect because neural pathways are routes within the nervous system rather than the specific structure inside the backbone.
Option c is incorrect because nerve bundles are collections of nerve fibers rather than the specific central structure within the spine.
Option d is incorrect because central channel refers to fluid-filled space within the spinal cord rather than the cord structure itself.

Correct Answer: Fight preparation

Sympathetic activation prepares the body for fight-or-flight responses by enhancing physical capabilities through increased oxygen and vision.
Option a is incorrect because stress response is too general, not specifying the sympathetic system's role in preparing for physical action.
Option c is incorrect because arousal state doesn't capture the specific physical preparation for action that sympathetic activation provides systematically.
Option d is incorrect because emergency activation is descriptive rather than identifying the specific fight-or-flight preparation mechanism being described here.

Correct Answer: Direct observation

Direct observation involves researchers taking careful, methodical notes while observing phenomena firsthand without instrumental measurements or interventions.
Option a is incorrect because field observation specifies location rather than the method of careful note-taking during firsthand observation described.
Option c is incorrect because natural observation emphasizes setting rather than the systematic note-taking method that defines direct observation specifically.
Option d is incorrect because systematic observation is broader, potentially including instruments rather than specifically manual note-taking by researchers personally.

Correct Answer: Informed consent

Informed consent requires telling participants about procedures, risks, and benefits before they agree to participate in research studies.
Option a is incorrect because ethical disclosure is part of informed consent but doesn't capture the full agreement process required ethically.
Option c is incorrect because voluntary participation is one aspect but doesn't include the information provision that defines informed consent comprehensively.
Option d is incorrect because research transparency is broader than the specific participant agreement process that informed consent protocols require systematically.

Correct Answer: Conformity effect

Conformity occurs when minority position holders doubt themselves and adopt majority views, particularly when tasks are difficult or ambiguous.
Option a is incorrect because minority influence involves minorities changing majority opinions rather than minorities conforming to majority views themselves.
Option b is incorrect because majority pressure is the cause rather than the phenomenon of actually changing behavior to match majority positions.
Option d is incorrect because groupthink involves poor group decisions rather than individuals conforming to majority positions on difficult tasks specifically.

Correct Answer: Neuroethics

Neuroethics specifically addresses ethical issues in brain research, including using brain knowledge to predict and control human behavior.
Option a is incorrect because bioethics covers all biological and medical ethics rather than specifically brain research and behavioral control issues.
Option c is incorrect because research ethics encompasses all research rather than the specific brain-related ethical concerns neuroethics addresses uniquely.
Option d is incorrect because brain ethics isn't the formal term; neuroethics is the established field for these specialized concerns.

Correct Answer: Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that serves as the starting point for investigation through systematic scientific testing methods.
Option a is incorrect because theories are well-supported explanations developed after extensive testing rather than initial proposed explanations for investigation.
Option c is incorrect because predictions are specific expected outcomes rather than the broader proposed explanations that hypotheses represent scientifically.
Option d is incorrect because assumptions are accepted premises rather than proposed explanations specifically designed for systematic scientific testing processes.

Correct Answer: Pancreas

The pancreas is an abdominal organ essential for digestion and blood sugar regulation through its hormone production functions.
Option a is incorrect because the liver processes nutrients and toxins rather than directly regulating blood sugar through hormone production specifically.
Option c is incorrect because the stomach digests food through acid and enzymes rather than regulating blood sugar through hormonal mechanisms.
Option d is incorrect because intestines absorb nutrients rather than producing hormones that regulate blood sugar levels throughout the body systemically.

Correct Answer: Participant welfare

Participant welfare concerns arise when people endure harm believing they're helping science while researchers prioritize data over wellbeing.
Option a is incorrect because ethical violation is too broad rather than specifically addressing the welfare concerns when participants endure harm.
Option c is incorrect because research integrity involves honesty and accuracy rather than the specific issue of participant harm during studies.
Option d is incorrect because consent validity questions whether agreement was truly informed rather than ongoing welfare during harmful procedures specifically.

Correct Answer: Hormones

Hormones are chemicals produced by glands that act as neurotransmitter substances, affecting organs, thoughts, feelings, and behavior systemically.
Option a is incorrect because neurotransmitters specifically work at synapses rather than being produced by glands for systemic bodily effects broadly.
Option c is incorrect because endorphins are specific pain-relieving hormones rather than the general category of gland-produced chemical messengers described.
Option d is incorrect because peptides are protein molecules rather than specifically the gland-produced chemicals affecting organs and psychological states.

Correct Answer: Group norms

Norms are behavioral guides enforced through group sanctions, defining appropriate behavior across social contexts from families to workplaces.
Option a is incorrect because social rules is less precise than norms, which specifically involve group enforcement through sanctions and penalties.
Option c is incorrect because behavioral codes suggest formal written rules rather than the often unwritten norms enforced through group dynamics.
Option d is incorrect because cultural standards are broader societal expectations rather than specific group-enforced behavioral guidelines through sanctions specifically.

Correct Answer: Results sharing

Sharing results is the final scientific method step where researchers distribute findings for peer review and replication attempts.
Option a is incorrect because publication phase emphasizes the medium rather than the scientific method step of sharing findings for scrutiny.
Option c is incorrect because peer review is one component of results sharing rather than the complete step in scientific methodology.
Option d is incorrect because dissemination stage uses business terminology rather than the specific scientific method step of results sharing.